Dealing with Infertility and Reproduction in the Modern World through Sci-fi Movies
Victoria Feliz, Melissa Bolton, and Mercy Arijesudade
ENGL 21003 : Writing For the Sciences
Prof. Janelle Poe
May 11, 2020
The 2006 film Children of Men portrays a world in the near future which mass infertility has plagued the world. No person has successfully carried a pregnancy to term in 18 years, and the fate of the human race is at stake. Should the world face a global hardship such as this, what technologies could reproductive scientists implement to ensure the survival of the human race? Through this literature review, we will be examining the reproductive innovations presented in the films Jurassic Park (1993) and Brave New World (1980), and considering how they can be applied to the dystopia presented in Children of Men.
We will be comparing the de-extinction techniques used in the Jurassic Park films to actual modern day genetic revival efforts to save critically endangered species. We will present and discuss infertility in today’s world, and how it affects individuals and society as a whole. Finally we will examine technological advancements in reproductive sciences and how they are used to solve infertility issues today.
Current De-extinction Models of Endangered Animals (Victoria Feliz)
De-extinction is a biological field in which extinct or nearly extinct species are “resurrected”. The most famous depiction of this science is in the Jurassic Park/Jurassic World film series (I will hereby be referring to the series as a whole as “Jurassic Park”, the title of the first film). In these movies, scientists extract dinosaur DNA from ancient mosquitos that have been encased in amber, essentially preserving them and their stomach contents. The extracted DNA is sequenced and combined with the genes from modern creatures (notably frogs) to complete a sequence and create a fertilized egg (Spielberg 1993). Considering sexual reproduction requires germ cells (i.e. sperm and eggs) and the DNA extracted are body cells, how realistic is it to resurrect an extinct species in this way?
Biologist Beth Shapiro, the leading expert in the field of de-extinction, categorizes species resurrection into three main categories – back-breeding, cloning, and genetic engineering. Back-breeding is similar to selective breeding, in which individuals of a species are bred to enhance traits of their evolutionary ancestors. Over several generations, the off-spring produced will display traits of their extinct ancestors, but are not genetically identical to the extinct species. I will not be discussing this process further through this literature review, as it does not involve physical manipulation of cells or genetic materials. Cloning in this context refers to a technique known as somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). Cloning using SCNT requires living cells and will create an organism that is identical to the donor organism. I will discuss this technique in detail throughout this review. Genetic engineering is the technique used in the Jurassic Park series. This involves extracting and sequencing ancient DNA and breeding using SCNT. The resulting organism will not be identical to the extinct creature, as DNA from living, close relatives are required to sequence the genome (Shapiro 2017, 998). Through this literature review, I will be focusing on SCNT and genetic engineering, citing real world examples and theoretical models designed by species conservation experts.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer and Conservation
SCNT is a cloning technique that implants the nucleus from a somatic (body) cell into an unfertilized donor egg whose nucleus has been removed. The removal of the nucleus from the egg essentially erases genetic materials. When the new nucleus is implanted, the genetic materials are transferred as well, thus creating a clone of the somatic cell donor. When the egg donor and somatic cell donor are of different species, it is referred to as Interspecies Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer or iSCNT (Ryder 2015, 582). This technique requires the somatic cell donor to be alive or very recently deceased, as DNA begins to degrade almost immediately after death. If the somatic cell does not have a fully intact nucleus and completely undamaged DNA, the process will not work (Shapiro 2017, 998). The blood cells recovered from the amber encased mosquitos in Jurassic Park would not be a candidate for SCNT as they are, as the DNA would have degraded both after being consumed by the insect and over the millions of years passed.
iSCNT has been proposed as a method for reviving near extinct species, such as the black footed ferret (Ryder 2015, 582). A major concern for highly endangered species is inbreeding depression. If the reproductive options for a population is too small, offspring every generation become more genetically similar. When individuals with deleterious recessive genes breed, the likelihood that those genes will be expressed increases, leading to a reduction in genetic fitness for the population as a whole (Charlesworth 2009, 20). To combat this, conservationists will introduce individuals from another population. However, this does not ensure reproduction will occur with the individual introduced, and if the global population is small enough, there may not be another local population to pull from.
Another challenge a species can face is the lack of females fit for childbirth. Consider the case of the Northern White Rhino. Only three Northern White Rhinos exist in the world, all of which are in captivity. Neither of the living female Northern White Rhinos are healthy enough to carry and deliver offspring (Callaway 2016). Dr Oliver Ryder and his team at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research have proposed iSCNT as a viable solution to save the species. “The Frozen Zoo” at the institute is a massive collection of cryogenically frozen genetic materials from over 9000 animals across more than 1000 species (Ryder 2012, 19). Dr Ryder has proposed creating a new population of Northern White Rhinos, using the genetic materials in the “Frozen Zoo” and donor eggs from the Southern White Rhino. Female Southern White Rhinos would also act as surrogate mothers for the SCNT developed embryos. Through this, the team at the San Diego Zoo hope to create a self-sustaining population of Northern White Rhinos that can exist independently in the wild (Callaway 2016, 20).
Genetic Engineering and SCNT
If the DNA from the somatic cells have degraded, the nucleus transfer from the somatic cell to the donor egg will not result in an embryo. The degraded genome must be reconstructed. This can be done using DNA from the extinct species more closely related to living species. If the genome from the extinct species can be sequenced, the genome of individual cells from the living creature can be engineered to express the genes of the extinct individual. Those somatic cells can then be extracted and used for SCNT (Shapiro 2017, 999). While this technique is not currently possible with the technology available, Dr. Shapiro believes it may be possible in the near future. She believes genetic engineering coupled with SCNT is the most likely route to eventually achieving de-extinction.
The technique of genetic engineering more closely mirrors the science seen in Jurassic Park. In the films, the scientists “combine” damaged dinosaur DNA with a modern-day frog. This is done in a test tube, and not in vivo as proposed by Dr. Shapiro (Shapiro 2017). Additionally, frogs are not dinosaur’s closest living relatives. The writers likely chose amphibians as DNA donors, instead of birds, to introduce a plot point – as a result of the frog DNA some female dinosaurs were able to become male and reproduce on their own unbeknownst to the scientists, eventually wreaking havoc, destroying the lab, and killing most of the humans in the park (Spielberg 1993).
Had the scientists chosen to re-sequence bird DNA to express as a dinosaur’s genome, and done this process in vitro, it still would not be possible to de-extinct the dinosaur using this method. Dr. Shapiro explains that SCNT is not possible for egg-laying species “… because the reproductive physiology of these animals limits access to and manipulation of early eggs.” (Shapiro 2017, 1001).
Children of Men: Infertility (Melissa Bolton)
In the future, if the human population were to be confronted with the likelihood of extinction or near extinction due to infertility, then there is a strong possibility that somatic cell nuclear transfer accompanied by genetic engineering would be the best possible method to revive the human race.
Infertility is defined as a condition of the reproductive system of either one or both sexes that prevents the conception of children. To be diagnosed with infertility, couples must have been attempting to conceive for at least 1 year without any success, (American Pregnancy Association, 2019). In 2006, Alfonso Cuarón directed Children of Men, a science fiction film set in 2027 portraying a dystopian Britain where for the past eighteen years women were no longer able to become pregnant. In hopes of saving mankind from perishing, the Human Project, a program that consisted of brilliant scientists theorized some of the possible causes of the world’s mass infertility. Some of the possible causes include genetic experiments, gamma rays, pollution, and diseases (Children of Men, 2006, 09:05-10:01). However, miraculously after eighteen years of women facing miscarriages or not being able to conceive, Kee, a young West African refugee in her twenties falls pregnant. Kee’s conception symbolizes a new beginning, that there is still time to start fresh and make amends before all hope is lost.
According to the Office on Women’s Health, “About 10 percent of women (6.1 million) in the United States ages 15-44 have difficulty getting pregnant or staying pregnant.” Typically, most women who experience infertility have an ovulation disorder. Having an ovulation disorder can cause polycystic ovary syndrome or PCOS, which is a hormonal imbalance that hinders the release of a female ovum (Feintuch, 2017). Furthermore, once a woman reaches over the age of thirty-five her pregnancy is classified as a “geriatric pregnancy”. At this age, some women are not physically compatible to endure a full-term pregnancy without suffering complications such as miscarries or genetic abnormalities. In the film, Cuarón depicts a world where the cause of the world’s mass infertility rests solely upon women, however this theory is flawed because just like women men can face infertility issues. Although Children of Men misrepresented the rate of infertility to be global, only a portion of the world’s society faces infertility.
In most societies, not being able to conceive carries a particular stigma. This stigma has the potential to give rise to a certain degree of rejection which in turn causes considerable anxiety and disappointment. In the study, “Male and Female Infertility: Causes, And Management” published in 2019 by Mustafa, Iiizam, Hadi, & Sani it states, “The emotional losses created by infertility include the denial of motherhood as a rite of passage; the loss of one’s anticipated and imagined life; feeling of losing control over one’s life; doubting one’s womanhood; changed and sometimes loss of friendship…” (pg. 28). Unquestionably, the stigma of not being able to have children can cause an individual to become an outcast in their society, especially if they are constantly surrounded by fellow members that are starting to create their own family. Also, the stigma of not being able to have a child was reflected in the film because Theo, the main protagonist who had lost his only child twenty years prior, divorced his wife. Even though they had a strong relationship before their son’s imminent death, the death of their son was a traumatic experience that drove a wedge between the couple prompting their separation. As a result, without their son to further solidify their bond both mother and father lost the life that they had once expected. The mother was denied motherhood and womanhood given that her only child died at a young age and she later became infertile. It was also visible in the film that the young and middle age group were no longer attempting to form or maintain a romantic relationship with the opposite sex. This is because they were deprived of achieving their most basic physiological need on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, reproduction. Seeing that they were unable to achieve one of their most basic needs, they could not attain the other needs in the hierarchy. In the end, the impact of not being able to have a child has the ability to give rise to psychological disorders and affect one’s status in society.
With addressing infertility, young adults and adults benefit the most because they are being educated about some of the possible health concerns that may arise if they were diagnosed with infertility. Additionally, addressing infertility on a global scale has the potential to bring those that are facing similar problems together for moral and emotional support. This is because couples that struggle with infertility usually do not speak about the issue, which makes this topic controversial. Infertility can also benefit future medical research by allowing scientists to gain a better understanding of why some women or men are experiencing infertility issues and determine whether the problem lies within their genetic makeup or is related to environmental factors. Moreover, discovering where the problem lies would allow those that suffer from this health issue to have a safer and better way of fulfilling their dream of having a child. Since infertility is an issue that millions of people around the world face some ways in which people can share their story includes but are not limited to speaking to trusted family members and friends, starting an infertility blog, and or attending Advocacy Day to advocate for infertility (Gurevich, 2019). In today’s society, there are a variety of treatments for infertility such as intrauterine insemination, in vitro fertilization, and hormone testing for both women and men (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2019). On the other hand, a challenge that addressing infertility may have in the same narrative as Children of Men is that it may cause psychological-emotional disorders. As previously mentioned, people that were unable to have a child tend to exhibit signs of depression, anxiety, frustration, and hopelessness.
Medically Assisted Reproduction – Modern treatments for infertility (Mercy Arijesudade)
The possibility of a widespread infertility crisis and the subsequent conflict it could create is very low. However, infertility itself is still an issue among many, and there are a growing number of resources those dealing with infertility can use. Some of these resources are assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs). According to the “International Glossary on Infertility and Fertility Care”(2017), ARTs are all interventions that include the in vitro (in glassware) handling of both human oocytes and sperm or of embryos for the purpose of reproduction. This includes, but is not limited to, in vitro fertilization (IVF), and preimplantation genetic screening. ART does not include artificial insemination where “laboratory processed sperm are placed in the cervix or uterus to attempt a pregnancy”, since it involves only handling sperm, not eggs or ovaries (Zegers-Hochschild, et al., 2020, p.1790).
In vitro fertilization is a sequence of procedures outside of the body that involve the fertilization of gametes (reproductive cells). This process can be seen as controversial since multiple fertilized eggs are placed into the uterus in hope that one will attach to the uterine lining. Many people believe that life begins at conception, so they may see it as a form of murder. Preimplantation genetic screening/testing is a test done to analyze the DNA from oocytes (female gamete/egg) or embryos for determining genetic abnormalities (Evans, 2003, p.20). Once the parents find out about the disabilities their child can have, they may terminate the pregnancy. This may cause uproar in disability communities that aim to promote acceptance of individuals with disabilities. This could also promote eugenic ideals. Eugenics is the “improving” of the human race by encouraging reproduction among the “best” while eliminating or sterilizing “inferior” persons who have undesirable traits (Evans, 2003, p.20).
Ectogensis & Human Cloning – Possible Reproduction Methods in the Future
Two upcoming forms of assisted reproduction are ectogenesis and human cloning. Ectogenesis is the use of artificial wombs that allow for babies to grow outside their mothers’ bodies. According to the article “Human Reproduction in the Twenty-First Century”(2018) , over the last century, there have been several improvements that take scientists closer to creating artificial wombs. Incubators, mechanical ventilation, and surfactant supplementation (an important chemical in lung function) have been used to support premature infants. Those advances along with others have helped premature infants by recreating some conditions of the womb like temperature and smooth oxygen supply. While the artificial womb’s creation has been aimed at helping premature infants, many desire to have the entire pregnancy occur in an artificial womb (Greely, 2018, pp. 215-216) which is full ectogenesis. This will help individuals dealing with infertility who can’t get pregnant due to a damaged uterus or have failed multiple rounds of IVF. Women who aren’t comfortable with getting a surrogate mother/ gasterestational carrier can also use it. A gestational carrier is “a woman who carries a pregnancy with an agreement that she will give the offspring to the intended parent(s)”(Zegers-Hochschild, et al., 2020, p. 1764) . Ectogenesis could also be useful to fertile women who wish to avoid the challenges pregnancy can create such as health risks, discomfort, and work interruptions (Greenly, 2018, p.216).
Cloning, also known as SCNT (somatic cell nuclear transfer), has already been previously mentioned in its application to animals. Interestingly, human cloning has also already occurred. By using caffeine as part of the cloning process, laboratories have been able to clone human embryos. However, cloning in other mammals has had high rates of stillbirths, miscarriages, and deformities. At this point in time, human cloning would be reckless and is illegal in some American states and other countries. (Greely, 2018, p.210-211). Human cloning could encourage eugenic ideals by the promotion of cloning of individuals with traits that a society desires. Human cloning is often seen as unethical but who knows what could happen in the next century. Something major like a mass extinction or mass infertility could lead to human cloning being seen as a good thing. Both ectogenesis and human cloning along with the ARTs previously mentioned have some concerned about our society coming closer to the society in Brave New World.
Reproduction in an dystopian society
Brave New World (1980) is based on a book of the same name by Aldous Huxley. In both the film and book, each individual is conceived into a caste which, from lowest to highest, are Epsilon, Delta, Gamma, Beta, and Alpha. Their caste placement plays an important part of how they are treated, both before and after they are born.The Epsilons, Deltas, and Gammas are the labor workers, doing jobs like repairing and building machinery. Alphas and Betas do jobs that require greater levels of intelligence, like architect and doctor. Brave New World is set in a future world that is dominated by a society that overly seeks pleasure as pleasure is above everything else. Casual sex is encouraged, but love is a prohibited emotion as it can lead to jealousy, envy, and violence. Getting pregnant is also considered shameful as some women are sterilized while other women take contraceptives. In the Brave New World society, the people are conditioned to believe the act of women giving birth to babies is disgraceful so babies are mainly produced in labs.
Conception in Brave New World is a highly artificial process which starts with the egg and sperm being eugenically chosen as the sex cells are taken from those who best fit mentally and physically according to their caste placement. Next, artificial insemination occurs except the sex cells are joined in a bag or bottle instead of an uterus or cervix. Afterwards, there is “preimplantation genetic screening, in vitro fertilization, embryo sorting, selective sterilization, the Bokanovsky Process (or cloning), ectogenesis, and chemical and x-ray assaults on the embryo” (Clayton, 2016, p.889) as these are important parts of this society’s reproduction process. It seems we are extremely close to the reproductive process used in Brave New World as we can do all of those processes except full ectogenesis and the Bokanovsky’s Process.
The Bokanovsky’s Process is a process, as stated in the film, reserved for the lower castes — Gamma, Delta, and Epsilon— as the aggressiveness of the progress can lower mental function which must be preserved in the higher castes, Alpha and Beta. Unlike the modern day SCNT cloning , this cloning process is done through the splitting of the embryos. “Bokanovsky’s Process involves the artificial budding of the developing embryo to produce multiple identical twins, anywhere from eight to ninety-six from a single fertilized cell” (Clayton, 2016, p.889). This process creates a large group of identical humans that can perform menial tasks in the industrial Brave New World society. It starts with an eight-cell embryo being exposed to a combination of radiation and alcohol, causing the cell to split into two multiple times (Clayton, 2016, p.890). The clones are put on a conveyor belt, which suggests the babies are being manufactured like cars. The Alpha and Betas in the film also go down the belt to stop at different stations and receive injections and x-rays to curb any traits considered undesirable. While the possibility of such a process occuring in real life is slim considering how unethical it is, it would not be impossible for the real world to someday have reproduction strictly done so artificially as the technology advances scientists make each year steer us closer to that.
By looking at the technology in the modern world, Brave New World, and Jurassic Park, we are able to see if humans are able to deal with mass infertility like in Children of Men.When an individual is diagnosed with infertility, they may suffer psychological issues, such as feelings of hopelessness, depression, and anxiety. These feelings can strain their relationships and make them question their status in society. The people in Children of Men where the world had mass infertility especially felt these feelings. Humanity was on the road to extinction. Thankfully, there are several scientific advances that can prevent that. In Jurassic Park, genetic engineering was the main process used to de-extinct dinosaurs, but a look at modern technology shows that process is flawed in its execution and probability. Nonetheless, there are a few modern techniques, like cloning and genetic engineering, that can be used to de-extinct animals such as the North White Rhino. Assisted reproduction technology used by infertile people today and other advances that could exist in the future, such as ectogenesis and human cloning, would also prevent the extinction of humans. Humans could even adopt a reproduction process similar to that of the Brave New World society. Nonetheless, even if mass infertility never occurs, infertile individuals and the assisted reproduction technology that can help them must be supported.
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